Countermakrs
Countermarks on Ancient Coins of Hispania (3rd-1st Centuries BC)
Ancient coins offer additional information through the application of countermarks. Numismatic evidence indicates that this practice is almost as old as the invention of coinage itself, as early electrum issues feature marks applied by private individuals as early as the beginning of the 6th century BC (Le Rider 1975: 27–28). The use of countermarks quickly spread throughout the Ancient World, especially during the Hellenistic period, when state authorities began applying their own marks (Le Rider 1975: 37). Without a doubt, the Romans were the most effective and pragmatic in their application of countermarks. Numerous punches of both private and state-civic origin have been documented on their coins, particularly from the 1st century BC to the 1st century AD, though marks continued to appear in the eastern part of the Empire until the 3rd century AD (Howgego 1985). The Iberian Peninsula was no exception to this Mediterranean-wide process, as coins reveal that countermarks began to be applied as early as the late 3rd century BC (Cerdà 2022: 227, 230, no. 32).
The study of countermarks on Iberian coins is challenging due to the archaeological decontextualization of the material and the almost complete lack of knowledge regarding the intended meaning of these marks. Consequently, their analysis attracted little interest among scholars, antiquarians, and researchers from the 18th to the 20th centuries. However, during this period, initial rigorous studies emerged, with authors such as Vives, Vigo, and Guadán attempting to interpret the significance and function of the documented marks (see a bibliographic synthesis in Cerdà 2022: 222–224). Today, research continues to progress, with both conventional and online publications enabling the dissemination and accessibility of many countermarked coins that were previously unknown to researchers. Despite these efforts, much remains to be understood about Iberian countermarks. Nevertheless, their analysis highlights the complexity of the Iberian monetary system and the various secondary uses of its coinage.
Approximately one thousand coins were examined in the creation of this index of countermarks. This collection includes a large number of legible marks and, to a lesser extent, others that are uncertain or ambiguous due to improper engraving or because they are irregular graffiti or incisions. After discarding uncertain material, 120 distinct types of countermarks were cataloged, organized numerically. Some of these types have variants, identified with letters (e.g., 1a, 1b, 1c), resulting in a total of 158 groupings of countermarks, comprising 120 types and 40 variants. The marks in the catalog are organized following the system proposed by the APRH catalog (p. 324–326), which classifies them into animated figures, inanimate objects, uncertain objects, and letters/signs. For each entry, formal, chronological, and bibliographic information is provided, and the index allows users to view or access detailed records for each type, as well as the associated coins.
More than half of the countermarks presented were stamped between the late 3rd century BC and the 40s BC, based on their formal and epigraphic characteristics or the types of coins on which they appear. They are particularly abundant during the first half of the 1st century BC (Table 1). The development of countermarked coinage in the Iberian Peninsula likely paralleled Rome's control of the Hispanic provinces and the gradual monetization of the region (Cerdà 2022: 230–231). This would explain the surge in the application of marks observed around the mid-1st century BC when coinage use had become firmly established among the Iberian population.
Table 1. Chronological and percentage distribution of the 160 groups (120 types and 40 variants) of countermarks.
The remaining documented punches date to the Imperial period, as they were also stamped on provincial coins. The presence of these Imperial countermarks on coins from the 2nd and 1st centuries BC demonstrates that these pieces circulated for extended periods, sometimes over a century or more, as documented in archaeological stratigraphy (Campo, Ruiz de Arbulo 1989: 159–160).
All the countermarks presented here were applied with small punches (ranging from 1 mm to slightly over 10 mm) in rectangular/square, round/oval, rhomboid, triangular, incised, or dotted shapes. Rectangular punches and epigraphic incisions are the most numerous. The artisans who stamped these marks were often systematic in their placement on the obverse or reverse of the coins, though it is rare to determine whether the application was civic, private, related to a trade, commerce, a historical figure, practical utility, or the military. We are confident that future discoveries will help clarify the function of each mark.
This catalog transcends traditional print publications by sequencing the documented punches and coins attributed to each type, enabling access to the complete study material. It also allows for ongoing adjustments and expansions to the index as new countermarks are discovered.
The study of countermarks on Iberian coins is challenging due to the archaeological decontextualization of the material and the almost complete lack of knowledge regarding the intended meaning of these marks. Consequently, their analysis attracted little interest among scholars, antiquarians, and researchers from the 18th to the 20th centuries. However, during this period, initial rigorous studies emerged, with authors such as Vives, Vigo, and Guadán attempting to interpret the significance and function of the documented marks (see a bibliographic synthesis in Cerdà 2022: 222–224). Today, research continues to progress, with both conventional and online publications enabling the dissemination and accessibility of many countermarked coins that were previously unknown to researchers. Despite these efforts, much remains to be understood about Iberian countermarks. Nevertheless, their analysis highlights the complexity of the Iberian monetary system and the various secondary uses of its coinage.
Approximately one thousand coins were examined in the creation of this index of countermarks. This collection includes a large number of legible marks and, to a lesser extent, others that are uncertain or ambiguous due to improper engraving or because they are irregular graffiti or incisions. After discarding uncertain material, 120 distinct types of countermarks were cataloged, organized numerically. Some of these types have variants, identified with letters (e.g., 1a, 1b, 1c), resulting in a total of 158 groupings of countermarks, comprising 120 types and 40 variants. The marks in the catalog are organized following the system proposed by the APRH catalog (p. 324–326), which classifies them into animated figures, inanimate objects, uncertain objects, and letters/signs. For each entry, formal, chronological, and bibliographic information is provided, and the index allows users to view or access detailed records for each type, as well as the associated coins.
More than half of the countermarks presented were stamped between the late 3rd century BC and the 40s BC, based on their formal and epigraphic characteristics or the types of coins on which they appear. They are particularly abundant during the first half of the 1st century BC (Table 1). The development of countermarked coinage in the Iberian Peninsula likely paralleled Rome's control of the Hispanic provinces and the gradual monetization of the region (Cerdà 2022: 230–231). This would explain the surge in the application of marks observed around the mid-1st century BC when coinage use had become firmly established among the Iberian population.
| Period | Groups | % |
| Late 3rd century BC | 3 | 1.9 |
| 2nd century BC | 9 | 5.7 |
| Late 2nd–Early 1st century BC | 12 | 7.6 |
| Early–Mid 1st century BC | 113 | 70.9 |
| 40 BC–40 AD | 17 | 10.1 |
| Uncertain | 6 | 3.8 |
Table 1. Chronological and percentage distribution of the 160 groups (120 types and 40 variants) of countermarks.
The remaining documented punches date to the Imperial period, as they were also stamped on provincial coins. The presence of these Imperial countermarks on coins from the 2nd and 1st centuries BC demonstrates that these pieces circulated for extended periods, sometimes over a century or more, as documented in archaeological stratigraphy (Campo, Ruiz de Arbulo 1989: 159–160).
All the countermarks presented here were applied with small punches (ranging from 1 mm to slightly over 10 mm) in rectangular/square, round/oval, rhomboid, triangular, incised, or dotted shapes. Rectangular punches and epigraphic incisions are the most numerous. The artisans who stamped these marks were often systematic in their placement on the obverse or reverse of the coins, though it is rare to determine whether the application was civic, private, related to a trade, commerce, a historical figure, practical utility, or the military. We are confident that future discoveries will help clarify the function of each mark.
This catalog transcends traditional print publications by sequencing the documented punches and coins attributed to each type, enabling access to the complete study material. It also allows for ongoing adjustments and expansions to the index as new countermarks are discovered.